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yourself in the extensive
history of Ancient Rome, the Renaissance period or
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Italian opera.
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famous Italian artists
& more! Enjoy your cultural experience.
Italian History:
The history of the
Holy Roman Empire can be divided into four periods: the age of
emperors, the age of princes, the early Habsburg period, and the final
phase.
(i) Age of the Emperors
The first age,
from 962 to 1250, was dominated by the strong emperors of the Saxon,
Salian (or Franconian), and Hohenstaufen dynasties. These emperors
made serious efforts to control Italy, which in practical political
terms was the most important part of the empire. Their power, however,
depended on their German resources, which were never great. Italy
consisted of the Lombard area, with its wealthy towns; the Papal
States; scattered regions still claimed by the Byzantine Empire; and
the Norman kingdom of Naples and Sicily. The emperors generally tried
to govern through existing officials such as counts and bishops rather
than by creating a direct administrative system. The papacy, weak and
disturbed by the Roman aristocracy, needed the emperors, who, during
the Saxon and early Salian generations, thought of the Bishop of Rome
as subject to the same kind of control that they exercised over their
own German bishops. Henry III, for example, deposed unsatisfactory
Popes and nominated new ones as he deemed fit.
During the reigns
of Henry IV and Henry V in the late 11th and early 12th centuries, the
papacy was influenced by a powerful reform movement that demanded an
end to lay domination. Popes Gregory VII and Urban II insisted on
independence for the papacy and for the church in general during the
Investiture Controversy. Later Popes continued jealously to guard
their freedom, and this produced conflict with the Hohenstaufen
emperors Frederick I and Frederick II, both of whom wanted to exercise
control over all of Italy. The later Hohenstaufen emperors gained
control of the Norman kingdom in southern Italy and declared it a fief
of the popes, who nevertheless worried about their independence and
often supported the emperors' Lombard foes. In the 13th century, Popes
Innocent III, Gregory IX, and Innocent IV restricted the authority of
Otto IV and Frederick II in many bitter disputes.
(ii) Age of the Princes
During the age of
the princes, from 1250 to 1438, the emperors were much weaker. They
exercised minimal authority in Italy, and many of them were never
crowned emperor by the pope. Even in Germany their power was reduced,
for Frederick II had dissipated royal prerogatives and resources in
his northern lands while struggling to dominate Italy. The emperors
were unable to restrain the German nobles or to resist French
encroachments on the western frontiers of the empire, and the Slavic
rulers in the east rejected all imperial overlordship. The Guelphs, or
anti-imperialists in Italy (see Guelfs and Ghibellines), spoke of
ending the empire or transferring it to the French kings. Political
theorists such as Engelbert of Admont (1250-1331), Alexander of Roes
(fl. late 13th century), and even Dante, however, insisted that the
German emperors were needed. Marsilius of Padua, in his Defensor pacis,
argued for the end of all papal influence on the empire.
At this time the
practice of electing the German king, or emperor, was given formal
definition by the Golden Bull (1356) of Emperor Charles IV. This
document, which defined the status of the seven German princely
electors, made it clear that the emperor held office by election
rather than hereditary right. The electors usually chose insignificant
rulers who could not interfere with the electors' privileges, but such
rulers could neither govern effectively nor maintain imperial rights.
Their power was largely limited to strengthening their own families.
The empire consequently began to disintegrate into nearly independent
territories or self-governing groups such as the Hanseatic League.
(iii) Early Habsburg Period
After 1438 the
electors almost always chose a member of the Habsburg dynasty of
Austria as king; the one exception was the election (1742) of the
Bavarian Charles VII. The Habsburg FrederickIII was the last emperor
to be crowned in Rome; his great-grandson Charles V was the last to be
crowned by a pope.
By this time a few
of the more farsighted princes saw the need to strengthen the empire's
central government. From 1485 to 1555 these reformers strove to create
a federal system. The diet, originally a loose assembly of princes,
had been organized into three strata--electors, princes, and
representatives of the imperial cities--by the Golden Bull and came to
resemble a legislature. In 1500 it was proposed that an executive
committee (Reichsregiment) appointed by the diet be given
administrative authority. A system of imperial courts was created, and
permanent institutions to provide for defense and taxation were also
discussed. The various states were organized into ten districts or
circles.
These reform
efforts seldom worked, however, because the princes would not
relinquish their jurisdiction. The situation was further complicated
by the advent of the Reformation, which fostered religious conflicts
that divided the principalities against one another. In addition, the
princes became alarmed at the sudden growth of power of the Habsburgs
when that dynasty acquired Spain. Under the guise of the
Counter-Reformation, Ferdinand II and Ferdinand III tried to
concentrate power in their hands, but defeat in the Thirty Years' War
undid their efforts and proved that the empire could not reform
itself.
(iv) Final Phase
After the Treaty
of Westphalia (1648) the Holy Roman Empire was little more than a
loose confederation of about 300 independent principalities and 1,500
or more semi-sovereign bodies or individuals. Threats from the Ottoman
Empire or from Louis XIV of France occasionally stimulated imperial
cooperation, but usually each state considered only its own welfare.
The Austrian-Prussian wars, Hanover's acquisition of the English
throne, and Saxony's holding of the Polish crown exemplify the
particularism that prevailed.
Napoleon I finally
destroyed the empire. After defeating Austria and its imperial allies
in 1797 and 1801, he annexed some German land and suggested that the
larger territories compensate themselves by confiscating the free
cities and ecclesiastical states. By the Diet's Recess (1803), 112
small states were thus seized by their neighbors. Three years later
Napoleon compelled 16 German states to form the Confederation of the
Rhine and to secede from the empire. On March 6, 1806, Francis II, who
had previously assumed the title of Emperor of Austria, abdicated as
Holy Roman Emperor and declared the old empire dissolved. ~Raymond
H. Schmandt
More on
Italian History:
-
The Italian History Index - a super resource on the history of
Italy.
-
BYU Italian Index - at this academic site you will find links to
all areas of Italian History including Paleolithic, Etruscans,
Ancient Rome & much more!
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Italian Art, Artists, Sculptors & more:
 Italian
art, works of art produced in the geographic region that now
constitutes the nation of Italy. Italian art has engendered great
public interest and involvement, resulting in the consistent
production of monumental and spectacular works. In addition, Italian
art has nearly always been closely allied with the intellectual and/or
religious currents of its day while retaining its own remarkable past
as a continual source of inspiration. ~from the Learning Network
-
8,000 Artist Bios & Digital Reproductions - featuring
Michaelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and Grassi just to name a few in
this extensive database.
-
Artistic Movements & Techniques - this wonderful web guide
contains pictures, comments, biographies and a glossary.
-
The Web Museum - find some of the greatest artists ever known:
the mighty Florentines, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo; the
Umbrian, Raphael; and, equal in might, the Venetians -- Titian,
Tintoretto
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The Vatican Museums - preserving the vast and
unique collection of art housed in the Vatican Museums.
-
Michelangelo Buonarroti - An excellent site about the artist who
was unmatched, the creator of works of sublime beauty that express
the full breadth of the human condition.
-
Museo ItaloAmericano collects, and displays works of Italian and
Italian-American artists, and promotes educational programs for the
appreciation of Italian art and culture.
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Italian Opera:
"The aria, after
all, is the soul of opera."
-Richard Strauss More
music quotes here
-
The Aria
Database is a diverse collection of information on over 1000
operatic arias. Designed for singers and non-singers alike, the
Database includes translations and aria texts of most arias as well
as a collection of MIDI files of operatic arias and ensembles.
-
Opera Web - complete with synopsis, curious things, musical
analysis, discography, and hundreds of audio clips ready for
listening!
-
The Bocelli
Network - This site is for people who have long followed
Bocelli's career as well as for those who are just curious about him
and want to find out more. It is for those interested in opera and
classical singing as well as those who are newcomers to the art form
that has so enriched our lives.
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More on
Italian Culture:
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Murano:
Italian Glass Making
